Learning and Memory for the MCAT: Everything You Need to Know
/Learn key MCAT concepts about learning and memory, plus practice questions and answers
(Note: This guide is part of our MCAT Psychology and Sociology series.)
Part 1: Introduction to learning and memory
Part 2: Learning
a) Observational learning
b) Classical conditioning
c) Operant conditioning
d) Biologically-based learning
Part 3: Memory
a) Encoding
b) Storage
c) Retrieval
Part 4: High-yield terms
Part 5: Passage-based questions and answers
Part 6: Standalone questions and answers
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Part 1: Introduction to learning and memory
Forming memories and learning behaviors are two essential facets of human behavior. Memories allow us to store information away to be retrieved at a later time, whereas learning allows us to gain and apply new information. As a result, this is a topic that can be tested in many ways on the MCAT.
As you progress through this guide on memory and learning, and memory, you will come across several bolded terms. These are important terms that you should fully understand in preparation for Test Day. While we provide some illustrative examples and definitions, the best way to completely grasp these concepts is to come up with your own definitions and examples from your own life.
At the end of the guide, we will also provide MCAT-style practice questions to give you a taste of how the AAMC could test these topics.
Let’s begin!
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Part 2: Learning
Learning and memory are intertwined—they are both methods of storing new information. Learning, however, differs in that it is specifically about the acquisition of new behaviors rather than the retainment of strict facts. Consider the difference between learning to ride a bike (an example of acquiring a new skill) and memorizing a list (an example of retaining semantic facts).
Learning occurs when an organism modifies its behavior to interact with its environment. For instance, animals may learn to push buttons and activate levers to receive some previously inaccessible food and water. As animals learn to manipulate the environment, sensory cues must inform the brain of the environment itself. For more information on this topic, be sure to refer to our guide on consciousness, sensation, and perception.
a) Observational learning
There are two types of learning: observational learning and associative learning.
Observational learning is the result of watching and mimicking the actions of others. In this form of learning, a teacher performs a behavior and a learner engages in modeling. Modeling refers to the process of observing another person, then mimicking the same behavior. Over time, the learning retains the newly learned behavior.
It is thought that observational learning is driven by mirror neurons: neuronal connections within the brain that inspire the mimicking of certain behaviors and emotions. Mirror neurons may serve to connect the sight and subsequent performance of behavior, such as yawning or smiling after another person does the same. They may also play a role in the experience of vicarious emotions, or emotions felt as a result of another individual’s experience, such as empathy.
Observational learning can be a very robust and quick way to learn new behaviors. As a result, observational learning can deeply impact the behavior of individuals and the behavior of larger groups.
Albert Bandura conducted some of the most infamous studies on observational learning with a toy called a Bobo doll. In a series of studies, children watched adults in another room interact with an inflatable Bobo doll, namely, by punching and kicking the doll. When subsequently placed in a room with the doll, the children likewise attacked the dolls. Though the doll did nothing to provoke this behavior from the children, the children reacted violently because they were mirroring the actions of the adults.
b) Classical conditioning
Associative learning is learning that occurs as a result of associating a behavior or stimulus with an additional environmental stimulus. It comes in two flavors: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning that transfers innate physiological reactions to a certain stimulus to create a response for a new, artificial stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus that naturally leads to the innate, unconditioned response. (In other words, there is no training that needs to take place to elicit the unconditioned response from the unconditioned stimulus).
In contrast to the unconditioned stimulus, a neutral stimulus does not lead to any particular response. After associative learning, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that leads to a response. Thus, the neutral stimulus is conditioned to become the stimulus that will become associated with, and consequently prompt, a conditioned response. After training, this conditioned response will result in the same behavior as the unconditioned response. The successful conditioning of this newly conditioned response is known as acquisition.
Consider the famous example of Pavlov’s dogs. In the study, Pavlov investigated whether a dog could be trained to salivate when exposed to something other than food: a bell. In dogs, the presentation of food naturally leads to salivation: a case in which the food is an unconditioned stimulus that leads to the unconditioned response of salivation. Pavlov attempted to transfer this response so that the ringing of a bell (a conditioned stimulus) would lead to salivation.
To do so, Pavlov always rang a bell, activating the conditioned stimulus, just before presenting the unconditioned stimulus. This prompted the dog to associate the bell with the arrival of food. In time, the dog began to salivate when hearing the bell, even when no food was presented.
Figure: Unconditioned and conditioned responses in Pavlov’s dogs.
The scope of the conditioned stimulus can expand in a process known as generalization. Generalization is the extension of the conditioned stimulus to encompass similar things, which will then elicit the same conditioned response. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, the dog may have generalized the conditioned response to salivate at any loud sound, such as an alarm clock or a whistle—instead of solely the bell. Discrimination works in opposition—it is the ability of the subject to distinguish between stimuli that are similar and respond only to the actual stimulus that was presented during conditioning.
Conditioning can also result in the removal of behaviors. Consider a scenario in which a child named Jim is bullied. Every day, Jim is stuffed in a locker by this bully. To Jim, an unconditioned stimulus is being targeted by the bully, while the unconditioned responses are fear and perspiration from anxiety. Over time, the bully will become a conditioned stimulus as the same bully repeatedly targets Jim. Soon enough, Jim will be conditioned to sweat and become afraid in the bully’s presence, even if the bully does not harm or target Jim.
Thankfully, conditioned responses are not permanent. If the conditioned stimulus is not associated with the unconditioned stimulus consecutively and frequently enough, extinction of the conditioned response may occur. The conditioned response may be recovered through spontaneous recovery, when there is a sudden conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus in the subject after a period of extinction.
c) Operant conditioning
While classical conditioning conditions innate behaviors, operant conditioning conditions voluntary behaviors. Voluntary behaviors are behaviors that result in consequences that can either increase or decrease in frequency. Consequences can either be reinforcers or punishers. Reinforcers will always encourage—or increase the frequency of—the behavior, and punishers will always discourage—or decrease the frequency of—the behavior.
Reinforcers and punishers can themselves be classified as positive or negative. A “positive” qualifier indicates the addition of a stimulus, while a “negative” qualifier indicates the removal of a stimulus. Thus, positive punishment is the addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior, while negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior.
Figure: Reinforcement and punishment can be negative or positive.
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