Learning and Memory for the MCAT: Everything You Need to Know
Master MCAT learning and memory with clear explanations of conditioning, memory processes, and practice questions with detailed answers.
(Note: This guide is part of our MCAT Psychology and Sociology series.)
Part 1: Introduction to learning and memory
Part 2: Learning
a) Observational learning
b) Classical conditioning
c) Operant conditioning
d) Biologically-based learning
Part 3: Memory
a) Encoding
b) Storage
c) Retrieval
Part 4: High-Yield Terms
Part 5: Passage-Based Questions and Answerss
Part 6: Standalone Questions and Answers
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Part 1: Introduction to learning and memory
Forming memories and learning behaviors are two essential facets of human behavior. Memories allow us to store information away to be retrieved at a later time, whereas learning allows us to gain and apply new information. As a result, this is a topic that can be tested in many ways on the MCAT.
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Part 2: Learning
Learning and memory are intertwined—they are both methods of storing new information. Learning, however, differs in that it is specifically about the acquisition of new behaviors rather than the retainment of strict facts. Consider the difference between learning to ride a bike (an example of acquiring a new skill) and memorizing a list (an example of retaining semantic facts).
Learning occurs when an organism modifies its behavior to interact with its environment. For instance, animals may learn to push buttons and activate levers to receive some previously inaccessible food and water. As animals learn to manipulate the environment, sensory cues must inform the brain of the environment itself. For more information on this topic, be sure to refer to our guide on consciousness, sensation, and perception.
a) Observational learning
There are two types of learning: observational learning and associative learning.
Observational learning is the result of watching and mimicking the actions of others. In this form of learning, a teacher performs a behavior and a learner engages in modeling. Modeling refers to the process of observing another person, then mimicking the same behavior. Over time, the learning retains the newly learned behavior.
It is thought that observational learning is driven by mirror neurons: neuronal connections within the brain that inspire the mimicking of certain behaviors and emotions. Mirror neurons may serve to connect the sight and subsequent performance of behavior, such as yawning or smiling after another person does the same. They may also play a role in the experience of vicarious emotions, or emotions felt as a result of another individual’s experience, such as empathy.
Observational learning can be a very robust and quick way to learn new behaviors. As a result, observational learning can deeply impact the behavior of individuals and the behavior of larger groups.
Albert Bandura conducted some of the most infamous studies on observational learning with a toy called a Bobo doll. In a series of studies, children watched adults in another room interact with an inflatable Bobo doll, namely, by punching and kicking the doll. When subsequently placed in a room with the doll, the children likewise attacked the dolls. Though the doll did nothing to provoke this behavior from the children, the children reacted violently because they were mirroring the actions of the adults.
b) Classical conditioning
Associative learning is learning that occurs as a result of associating a behavior or stimulus with an additional environmental stimulus. It comes in two flavors: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning that transfers innate physiological reactions to a certain stimulus to create a response for a new, artificial stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus that naturally leads to the innate, unconditioned response. (In other words, there is no training that needs to take place to elicit the unconditioned response from the unconditioned stimulus).
In contrast to the unconditioned stimulus, a neutral stimulus does not lead to any particular response. After associative learning, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that leads to a response. Thus, the neutral stimulus is conditioned to become the stimulus that will become associated with, and consequently prompt, a conditioned response. After training, this conditioned response will result in the same behavior as the unconditioned response. The successful conditioning of this newly conditioned response is known as acquisition.
Consider the famous example of Pavlov’s dogs. In the study, Pavlov investigated whether a dog could be trained to salivate when exposed to something other than food: a bell. In dogs, the presentation of food naturally leads to salivation: a case in which the food is an unconditioned stimulus that leads to the unconditioned response of salivation. Pavlov attempted to transfer this response so that the ringing of a bell (a conditioned stimulus) would lead to salivation.
To do so, Pavlov always rang a bell, activating the conditioned stimulus, just before presenting the unconditioned stimulus. This prompted the dog to associate the bell with the arrival of food. In time, the dog began to salivate when hearing the bell, even when no food was presented.
Figure 1 Unconditioned and conditioned responses in Pavlov's dogs.
The scope of the conditioned stimulus can expand in a process known as generalization. Generalization is the extension of the conditioned stimulus to encompass similar things, which will then elicit the same conditioned response. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, the dog may have generalized the conditioned response to salivate at any loud sound, such as an alarm clock or a whistle—instead of solely the bell. Discrimination works in opposition—it is the ability of the subject to distinguish between stimuli that are similar and respond only to the actual stimulus that was presented during conditioning.
Conditioning can also result in the removal of behaviors. Consider a scenario in which a child named Jim is bullied. Every day, Jim is stuffed in a locker by this bully. To Jim, an unconditioned stimulus is being targeted by the bully, while the unconditioned responses are fear and perspiration from anxiety. Over time, the bully will become a conditioned stimulus as the same bully repeatedly targets Jim. Soon enough, Jim will be conditioned to sweat and become afraid in the bully’s presence, even if the bully does not harm or target Jim.
Thankfully, conditioned responses are not permanent. If the conditioned stimulus is not associated with the unconditioned stimulus consecutively and frequently enough, extinction of the conditioned response may occur. The conditioned response may be recovered through spontaneous recovery, when there is a sudden conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus in the subject after a period of extinction.
c) Operant conditioning
While classical conditioning conditions innate behaviors, operant conditioning conditions voluntary behaviors. Voluntary behaviors are behaviors that result in consequences that can either increase or decrease in frequency. Consequences can either be reinforcers or punishers. Reinforcers will always encourage—or increase the frequency of—the behavior, and punishers will always discourage—or decrease the frequency of—the behavior.
Reinforcers and punishers can themselves be classified as positive or negative. A “positive” qualifier indicates the addition of a stimulus, while a “negative” qualifier indicates the removal of a stimulus. Thus, positive punishment is the addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior, while negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior.
Figure 2 Reinforcement and punishment can be negative or positive.
Negative reinforcement itself can result in escape learning or avoidance learning. Behaviors due to these types of learning are a result of the organism attempting to escape unpleasant or unfavorable situations. Thus, escape learning will result in behaviors that seek to remove an already-present stimulus (e.g., eating to escape hunger). Avoidance learning will result in behaviors that seek to prevent unfavorable consequences (e.g., staying indoors during a storm to avoid getting wet).
For operant conditioning to work, the reinforcement or punishment must be repeated over multiple trials. The frequency and format in which these are repeated (the reinforcement schedule) have a significant impact on the rate at which the behavior is learned as well as the amount of time it takes the behavior to become extinct.
Reinforcement schedules can be fixed or variable and are further classified as ratio or interval. A schedule depending on a ratio means that the frequency of reinforcement is dependent on how many times the behavior is performed. A schedule depending on an interval means that the reinforcement is based on a length of time, regardless of whether or not the behavior has been performed.
Fixed-ratio indicates that the desired behavior will be reinforced after a set number of trials (e.g., earning a free order of frozen yogurt after purchasing the previous 10)
Variable-ratio indicates that the desired behavior is reinforced after a varying number of performances (e.g., executing a successful door-to-door sales pitch after a variable number of door knocks). This is the schedule that results in the quickest and most persistent learning.
Fixed-interval indicates that the desired behavior will be reinforced after a set amount of time passes once the last behavior has been reinforced (e.g., earning an annual Christmas bonus every year, regardless of the number of sales that have been made that year)
Variable-interval rewards the desired behavior at different intervals between trails (e.g., receiving randomized surprise visits from a regional manager at varying times of the year)
Note that behaviors conditioned with ratio-based reinforcement schedules are learned more quickly. This is because they employ behavior-dependent reward systems—the desired behavior, rather than a given amount of time, is rewarded. In contrast, fixed schedules often have a “lag period” during which the behavior will not be performed even after it has been reinforced.
Figure 3 Possible reinforcement schedules.
Operant conditioning can be used to train extremely specific patterns of activity through shaping: the rewarding of increasingly specific behaviors. This is used, for example, when training dolphins for a dolphin show—dolphins are initially rewarded for jumping, then only rewarded for jumping through a hoop, then only rewarded for jumping through the hoop and subsequently spinning twice, etc.
Operant and classical conditioning can also be used together through the use of primary and secondary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers are similar to unconditioned stimuli but instead rely on controlling a voluntary behavior. Secondary reinforcers are associated with the primary reinforcer through conditioning. Consider the following example of dog training: The trainer might also say the phrase “good boy” when the dog sits and is rewarded with a treat. In this case, the spoken phrase will ultimately act as a secondary reinforcer. After a series of training sessions and repetitions of saying the phrase and subsequently giving the dog a treat, the trainer may be able to use the verbal affirmation (secondary reinforcer) to prompt the dog to perform the desired behavior (sitting).
d) Biologically-based learning
In addition to observational and associative learning, there are many other forms of learning that are not unique to humans or vertebrates.
Preparedness is a phenomenon that describes when an organism learns a behavior similar to what it is naturally predisposed to do. A squirrel, for example, may learn to climb up an obstacle course since it is already predisposed to climb trees. Researchers occasionally try to teach animals behaviors that override their natural instincts, but this is a much more difficult task due to instinctive drift: the idea that some behaviors are harder to teach and retain if they go against innate natural behaviors that animals perform. For instance, teaching a mouse to make a bird-like pecking motion will be challenging and may be fruitless since mice do not naturally produce this type of action.
Behavioral sequences are a series of ordered actions that must be performed in a sequence. Consider the intricate mating rituals of some songbirds or a lion hunting its prey. Each process requires a series of steps that are performed in order to obtain a final result. If the sequence of steps is interrupted, then the goal cannot be attained.
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Part 3: Memory
Memory refers to the ability to recall information that has previously been acquired or learned. Forming and using memories is a complex process that requires multiple steps: including (1) encoding, (2) storage, and (3) retrieval.
a) Encoding
Memories can be created in many ways. In essence, they are our perceptions of an event that we store to recall later. Encoding is the process of committing new information to memory. For example, when we read something, such as this article, we can try to memorize it. This form of active encoding, in which we are consciously labeling pieces of information to be memorized, is called controlled processing (also referred to as effortful processing).
In contrast to effortful processing, information that is encountered regularly in our daily life may be encoded without explicitly labeling it as information to be encoded. This type of encoding is called automatic processing and may allow you to remember the layout of your childhood home, the color of someone’s hair, and other details.
The result of processing allows information to be encoded into storage. Different forms of information must undergo different forms of encoding. For instance, semantic encoding is the process of putting things into a meaningful context to help store it in one’s memory (such as memorizing a number by tying it to a birthday or the address of a familiar building). Semantic encoding is highly effective, as it allows for the storage of new information by tying it to already encoded information. The ease of semantic encoding leads to the self-reference effect, in which information that is most pertinent to one’s past experience is most easily encoded and retrieved.
Other forms of encoding include visual encoding, in which information is stored in diagrams and figures. Auditory encoding refers to the storage of information in sound.
When it comes to memorizing information through controlled processing, there are many techniques that may be used. Some of the most frequently used memory techniques are listed below.
Maintenance rehearsal: the process of repeating information to store it in memory (e.g., through flashcards)
Mnemonics: developing acronyms and rhymes that consolidate lists of information
Method of loci: organizing information in a list and associating each item with a spatial location within an imagined physical space
Peg-words: organizing information by associating words with images (e.g., thinking of an apple whenever one hears the word “red.”
Chunking: organizing lists of information into smaller groups, or “chunks,” of related items. Chunking can be useful in memorizing telephone numbers; instead of memorizing a random string of 10 digits, it is much easier to memorize “chunks” of 3 or 4 digits.
Encoding is an imperfect process. The process of creating memories is easily influenced by attributional factors, including any sentiments that were strongly held at the time of encoding.
The creation of false memories often slips by, unnoticed. Confabulation, or the creation of made-up stories to fill in gaps in our memory, is one way that false memories can be fabricated.
A source-monitoring error occurs when the details of an event are correctly remembered, but the origin or context of the information (the “source”) is incorrectly attributed.
The misinformation effect occurs when the information or context of a memory drastically changes the perception of an event. One of the most famous experiments dealing with the misinformation effect was conducted by psychologist Elizabeth Loftus. In the experiment, two groups of participants witnessed a car accident and were each asked different questions about the accident: one group was asked about the speed of the cars when they collided, while the other was asked about the speed of the cars when they crashed. The study found that the second group reported a much more severe accident than the first because the participants were asked leading, or suggestive, questions about the event.
b) Storage
When information is encoded, it can be stored in various forms of memory. Different forms of memory have different lifespans and tend to encode different forms of information.
Figure 4 Different forms of memory and their average retention.
Sensory memory, or the information that is received from the environment by the senses, lasts for an extremely short period of time. Sensory memory that is visual is called iconic memory, while echoic memory is the auditory counterpart to sensory memory. Echoic memory lasts slightly longer than iconic memory does.
To retain sensory memory, it must be actively attended to. By turning our attention to some features of our sensory memory, some information in sensory memory can enter short-term memory. Short-term memory lasts longer than does sensory memory: around 30 seconds. Short-term memory also has a limit on the amount of information it can hold at a given time: approximately seven items at one time.
Working memory, a form of short-term memory, allows us to hold on to large quantities of information simultaneously in order to solve a problem—for instance, when performing mental arithmetic.
In contrast, long-term memory functions as a bank in which we, after enough rehearsal or encoding, can store memories and information. Unlike our short-term memory, our long-term memory has no limit on the amount of information that can be stored. Several different forms of memory can be stored in long-term memory.
Implicit memory, also known as procedural memory, includes skill-based knowledge, such as riding a bike or driving a car. While we do not actively think of the steps involved in these processes, we implicitly know them and can perform the task passively when needed. Conditioned responses and behaviors (described later in this guide) and other memories that result from automatic processing are also stored in implicit memory.
Explicit memory holds memories that require active recall. There are two types of explicit memory: semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory stores explicit facts and pieces of knowledge (e.g., the capital cities of the 50 U.S. states), while episodic memory stores events and occurrences that have been lived through.
Flashbulb memory is a special type of memory that captures elements of both semantic memory and episodic memory. It typically results from important or emotionally shocking events, such as graduating from college or witnessing a traumatic event. Flashbulb memory not only enlists episodic memory to capture the emotions and experience of the event, but also involves semantic memory to retain information about important event details—descriptions of an assailant, time of day, location, etc. Flashbulb memory can be incorrect, however, because emotions and context can often alter the recall of memories.
Elaborative rehearsal is one process by which information in short-term memory is moved to long-term memory, often by relating knowledge that has previously existed in long-term memory. This relation-based method is useful because it provides our memory with “hooks,” or connectors, for new memories to hold onto—which demonstrates why many of the most effective memorization techniques draw upon making connections to prior knowledge.
Memories are created through processing in the hippocampus, resulting in the formation of a neuronal path through other parts of the brain. Though initially intact when the memory is being formed, this path may decay. If information stored in short-term memory is not rehearsed, the neuronal path may decay and prevent the information from being stored in long-term memory. Long-term potentiation is the process of strengthening and increasing the physiological activity of receptors in this path in order to encode information into the long-term memory.
Unfortunately, memories can be lost over time. It is often thought that aging alone is responsible for forgetfulness, but this is a common misconception. Memory loss can occur for a wide variety of reasons, including brain disorders, interference, and decay.
Brain disorders are more prevalent in the older generations. One of the most well-known brain disorders is Alzheimer’s disease, in which memory loss proceeds in a retrograde fashion—the most recent memories are lost first. Alzheimer’s disease is also associated with dementia, a loss of cognitive function, and brain atrophy. Korsakoff’s syndrome, caused by a nutritional deficiency of thiamine and most often found in alcoholics, also generally results in amnesia. However, patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome often experience both retrograde and anterograde amnesia, resulting in the forgetting of prior memories and an inability to create new memories.
Memory loss can also be caused by interference. Interference occurs when the presence of certain information causes the loss of similar but older information or prevents the encoding of similar but newer information. Retroactive interference occurs when new information displaces old information (e.g., constantly memorizing and recalling a new phone number often results in forgetting one’s old number). Proactive interference is the inverse: it takes place when old information prevents the encoding and storage of new information. An example of this is failing to remember an updated computer password because one can only remember their previous password.
Further, some memories are just lost over time due to a failure of encoding in long-term memory, the result of a process known as decay. A psychologist named Hermann Ebbinghaus discovered that decay of semantic memories occurs in an exponential manner: most forgetting occurs in a short period of time after the memory is encoded. The rate at which this initial decay proceeds depends on several factors, including the context of the memory, use of any memorization techniques, and so forth.
Figure 5 An example of Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve.
Relearning is, as the name implies, studying information that one has already committed to long-term memory—or has forgotten—in order to expedite recall. It is much quicker and easier than learning something for the first time. Interestingly, the time between learning and relearning also influences retention—the spacing effect shows that the longer the period in between relearning sessions, the greater the retention is in the long run. As a result, encoding semantic memory with spaced repetition results in a much stronger encoding and ability to retrieve information.
Procedural and other forms of implicit memory generally do not decline with age. The recognition of semantic information also tends to remain unchanged over time. However, the free or unprompted recall of semantic information may decline with age.
c) Retrieval
Retrieval is the ability to recall and use information that has been previously encoded into memory storage. There are many different types of retrieval, but the two most important are recall and recognition.
Recall refers to the ability to recreate information that has been stored in memory without the use of any contextual cues. The serial position effect is a phenomenon in which the position of an item in a list will affect the ability of the list to be accurately recalled. In particular, the information at the beginning and end of a list will be remembered the best, a result of the primacy and recency effects. The primacy effect has been shown to be more robust than the recency effect over time. Over time, the items at the end of the list will be forgotten earlier than the items at the beginning of the list.
Recognition refers to the ability to use contextual cues to retrieve information that is related. The power of recognition is in part due to the semantic network that is formed by concepts stored within our memory. The semantic network relies on the “hooks” that link various pieces of information to one another in order to store them more efficiently. These pieces of information are linked because they are similar in meaning or function.
The activation of one concept that is in a semantic network leads to spreading activation, or the activation of highly related concepts that are interconnected within the semantic network. For instance, when envisioning a stop sign, the idea of red or stopping could lead us to think about traffic lights.
Retrieval cues like priming and context effects are also related to spreading activation. Priming occurs when a cue related to a semantic memory is presented in an attempt to prompt the memory. Context effects occur when the physical location that an individual is in aids with the retrieval of information. For instance: studies have shown that taking a test in the same room as where the information was learned improves scores compared to taking the test in a different location.
State-dependent memory is based on a similar phenomenon: information learned in a particular emotional or affective state will be better recalled when the person is in the same state as when they learned the information compared to a different state.
Like the process of encoding, aging can deeply affect the ability to retrieve memories. Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to form new connections quickly to encode memories. The brain has its highest level of neuroplasticity during infancy, allowing children to learn quickly and fluently apply information. (This may explain why it is much easier for children to learn new languages in comparison to adult language learners.) However, synaptic pruning occurs with aging; following the “use it or lose it” principle, connections that are used often will strengthen, and those that are rarely used will be broken.
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Part 4: High-yield terms
Encoding: the process of committing new information to memory
Self-reference effect: information that is most pertinent to one’s past experience is most easily encoded and retrieved.
Confabulation: the creation of made-up stories to fill in gaps in our memory
Source-monitoring error: occurs when the details of an event are correctly remembered, but the origin or context of the information is incorrectly attributed
Misinformation effect: occurs when the information or context of a memory drastically changes the perception of an event
Sensory memory: information that is received from the environment by the senses
Implicit memory: contains skill-based knowledge
Explicit memory: holds memories that require active recall, including semantic and episodic memory
Semantic memory: stores explicit facts and pieces of knowledge
Episodic memory: stores events and occurrences that have been lived through
Elaborative rehearsal: information in short-term memory is moved to long-term memory, often by relating knowledge that has previously existed in long-term memory
Long-term potentiation: strengthening and increasing the physiological activity of receptors in a neuronal path in order to encode information into the long-term memory
Retroactive interference: when new information displaces old information
Proactive interference: when old information prevents the encoding and storage of new information
Retrieval: the ability to recall and use information that has been previously encoded into memory storage
Recall: the ability to recreate information that has been stored in memory without the use of any contextual cues
Serial position effect: a phenomenon in which the position of an item in a list will affect the ability of the list to be accurately recalled
Recognition: the ability to use contextual cues to retrieve information that is related
Spreading activation: the activation of highly related concepts that are interconnected within the semantic network
Priming: a cue related to a semantic memory is presented in an attempt to prompt the memory
Neuroplasticity: the ability of the brain to form new connections quickly to encode memories
Synaptic pruning: neuronal connections that are used often will strengthen, and those that are rarely used will be broken
Observational learning: the result of watching and mimicking the actions of others
Associative learning: learning that occurs as a result of associating a behavior or stimulus with an additional environmental stimulus; can be classical or operant conditioning
Generalization: the extension of the conditioned stimulus to encompass similar things, which will then elicit the same conditioned response
Discrimination: the ability of the subject to distinguish between stimuli that are similar and respond only to the actual stimulus that was presented during conditioning
Spontaneous recovery: when there is a sudden conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus in the subject after a period of extinction
Reinforcers: consequences stipulated by a conditioner that will always encourage—or increase the frequency of—the behavior
Punishers: consequences stipulated by a conditioner that will always discourage—or decrease the frequency o—-the behavior
Reinforcement schedule: frequency and format in which behavior is repeated during operant conditioning; can be fixed- or variable- interval or ratio
Shaping: rewarding increasingly specific behaviors to train an extremely specific pattern of activity
Primary reinforcers: similar to unconditioned stimuli, but instead rely on controlling a voluntary behavior.
Secondary reinforcers: associated with the primary reinforcer through conditioning
Preparedness: when an organism learns a behavior similar to what it is naturally predisposed to do
Instinctive drift: the idea that some behaviors are harder to teach and retain if they go against innate natural behaviors that animals perform
Behavioral sequences: series of ordered actions that must be performed in a sequence
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Part 5: Passage-based questions and answers
Substances such as alcohol and nicotine are often abused simultaneously by the same individual. Studies have shown that the abuse of alcohol is highly predictive of nicotine abuse, and vice versa.
Researchers studying addiction hypothesize that the environment, or context, of nicotine abuse plays a critical role in alcohol consumption and abuse. To study this, researchers designed two sets of rat cages termed the “home” and “operant” chambers. Rats were raised and matured through adolescence in the “home” chamber and did not spend any time in the “operant” chamber before experimentation. The “operant” chamber included a mechanism that allowed the rats to self-administer alcohol upon a lever press.
In one experiment, researchers treated one group of rats in the home chamber with saline and a second group of rats in the home chamber with nicotine injections. When rats from both groups were placed in the operant chamber, there was no statistical difference in the number of lever presses.
In another experiment, researchers introduced a third, unfamiliar environment. One group of rats was taken out of the home chamber, administered nicotine in the operant chamber, and administered saline in the unfamiliar environment (referred to as the nicotine-paired context). A second group of rats were taken out of the home chamber, administered saline in the operant chamber, and administered nicotine in the unfamiliar environment (referred to as the saline-paired context). After 5 rounds of injections, the rats were placed in the operant chamber and allowed to perform lever presses to self-administer alcohol. The results are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Results of alcohol self-administration.
Following the experiment, rats were subjected to four weeks of abstinence in the home cage. Rats were then placed back into the operant cage, and the number of lever presses was monitored. The results are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Self-administered alcohol intake after a period of abstinence.
Question 1: The nicotine that rats received in the operant chamber is an example of:
A) Positive punisher
B) Negative punisher
C) Positive reinforcer
D) Negative reinforcer
Question 2: Which of the following scenarios describes a reinforcement schedule that is most similar to that of the lever press?
A) Earning a credit card reward every quarter of the year
B) Pulling a lever to play at a slot machine
C) Scolding a child for damaging furniture
D) Praising a student for every question answered correctly on an exam
Question 3: Any recollection of the home chamber or operant chamber would be stored in:
A) Iconic memory
B) Implicit memory
C) Flashbulb memory
D) Semantic memory
Question 4: Researchers find that rats left indefinitely in the operant cage soon cease to press the lever. This is best described as an example of:
A) Generalization
B) Discrimination
C) Extinction
D) Spontaneous recovery
Question 5: What learning technique was used by the researchers to encourage rats to press a lever?
A) Chunking; by grouping behaviors that are similar to pressing a lever, the rat can associate it with a reward
B) Shaping; by rewarding increasingly specific behavior, the researchers can guide random behavior to a more specific behavioral sequence
C) Observational learning; rats were able to observe researchers performing lever presses and mimicked the same actions
D) Instinctive drift; by utilizing the rat’s instinctive actions such as burrowing, the researchers transferred similar behaviors to interactions with the lever
Answer key for passage-based questions
Answer choice C is correct. The administered nicotine is an additive treatment to the rat and thus is considered positive. The number of lever presses that result after being placed in the operant chamber has increased, indicating that it is a reinforcer (choice C is correct). In contrast to a reinforcer, a punisher would decrease the frequency of a desired behavior (choices A and B are incorrect).
Answer choice D is correct. The reinforcement schedule used in self-administration of alcohol is best described as fixed-ratio, as alcohol is administered every time the correct behavior is performed. Thus, a reward is given after a fixed number of times the correct behavior is demonstrated (choice D is correct). Playing at a slot machine is an example of variable-ratio schedule, as a “jackpot” cannot be predicted between trials (choice B is incorrect). Earning a reward after a fixed amount of time is known as fixed-interval scheduling (choice A is incorrect). Scolding a child for damaging furniture is an example of positive punishment, or the addition of a stimulus to decrease the frequency of a certain behavior (choice C is incorrect).
Answer choice B is correct. Implicit memory includes knowledge that results from automatic processing, or memories that are stored and encoded without consciously being attended to. Examples of this include frequently traversed routes and the physical characteristics of others (choice B is correct). Iconic memory is a form of sensory memory that stores visual sensation (choice A is incorrect). Flashbulb memory describes the highly vivid memories that result from traumatic or important events (choice C is incorrect). Semantic memory stores discrete pieces of information or knowledge (choice D is incorrect).
Answer choice C is correct. Extinction occurs when the conditioned behavior (e.g., lever presses) no longer occurs in response to the stimulus (e.g., the operant chamber) (choice C is correct). The conditioned behavior may suddenly reappear in a phenomenon known as spontaneous recovery (choice D is incorrect). Generalization occurs when a behavior is displayed in response to multiple, related stimuli (choice A is incorrect). In contrast, discrimination occurs when a behavior is displayed in response to only one specific stimulus (choice B is incorrect).
Answer choice D is correct. Instinctive drift describes the tendency for animals to interact with objects in a manner that is similar to their natural behavior (choice D is correct). Chunking is a memorization technique that is not relevant in this case (choice A is incorrect). Shaping is used to encourage increasingly specific patterns of behavior, such as in animal displays at a zoo (choice B is incorrect). It is unlikely that observational learning is taking place here (choice C is incorrect).
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Part 6: Standalone practice questions and answers
Question 1: Which of the following pieces of information would be stored in echoic memory?
A) A relative’s phone number
B) Capitals of each state
C) A ringtone playing on someone else’s cell phone
D) How to play the tuba
Question 2: According to the principles of operant conditioning, which of the following reinforcements would lead to the longest-lasting behavior?
A) Slot machine hitting jackpot the first pull after an hour
B) Rewarding a mouse with food every fourth time a lever is pressed
C) Dispensing a dog treat after a random number of times the dog correctly sits
D) Waiting 60 seconds to reward a dolphin after every time the correct sequence is performed
Question 3: Which of the following is an example of retrograde amnesia?
A) Believing that a story that happened to a friend actually happened to you
B) Forgetting an old phone number when receiving a new one
C) Being unable to remember events that occurred after a traumatic accident
D) Being unable to remember events that occurred before a traumatic accident
Question 4: Suppose Jane is memorizing items on a list by associating them with stops on her path to the grocery store. Which memory tool is she using?
A) Chunking
B) Method of loci
C) Peg-word
D) Elaborative rehearsal
Answers to standalone questions
Answer choice C is correct. Echoic memory is a form of sensory memory that stores audio information for a short period of time, typically, only a few seconds (choice C is correct). Procedural memory can be stored in long-term memory, where it is held for an indefinite amount of time (choice D is incorrect). A relative’s phone number may be held in working memory, as it must be kept in short-term memory to store all 7 digits at once (choice A is incorrect). Memorizing the capitals of each U.S. state is an example of encoding semantic memory into long-term memory (choice B is incorrect).
Answer choice C is correct. Variable-ratio intervals result in the quickest learning and slowest extinction because it is behavior-based and is difficult for the organism to predict (choice C is correct). Fixed-ratio schedules present reinforcement after a set number of repetitions (choices A and B are incorrect). A fixed-interval schedule rewards behavior at a specified interval between repetitions of the correct behavior to provide reinforcement (choice D is incorrect).
Answer choice D is correct. Retrograde amnesia refers to a failure to remember things that happened prior to an event (choice D is correct). Anterograde amnesia refers to a failure to remember things after an event (choice C is incorrect. The source-monitoring error occurs when events are incorrectly attributed to a false context (choice A is incorrect). Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the memory of old information (choice B is incorrect)
Answer choice B is correct. The method of loci involves the use of locations as a memory tool (choice B is correct). Chunking is a memory technique in which similar concepts are grouped together in smaller lists (choice A is incorrect). The peg-word technique refers to when items are associated with an alternate image or visual cue (choice C is incorrect). Elaborative rehearsal involves actively thinking about the meaning of the item trying to be remembered and linking it to other items in long-term memory (choice D is incorrect).
