Learn essential MCAT topics on society and culture, complete practice questions, and review answers to strengthen your knowledge and test performance.
(Note: This guide is part of our MCAT Psychology and Sociology series. )
Table of Contents
Part 1: Introduction to society and culture
Part 2: Major theoretical approaches to sociology
a) Conflict theory
b) Meritocracy
c) Symbolic interactionism
d) Social constructionism
e) Rational choice exchange theory
f) Structural functionalism
Part 3: Social Structures and Institutions
a) Government and economy
b) Religion
c) Education
d) Family
e) Health and medicine
Part 4: Culture
Part 5: High-Yield Terms
Part 6: Passage-Based Questions and Answers
Part 7: Standalone Questions and Answers
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Part 1: Introduction to society and culture
How can we explain the causes and consequences of social behavior? What roles do social institutions-such as the government, school, and family-play in our society? Understanding the theories and reasoning behind society and social behavior can be quite overwhelming. Luckily, the MCAT will test you on only the most influential theories and institutions-those that have most influenced the evolution of the field of sociology. You will be expected to identify and differentiate between the various theoretical approaches to sociology and anticipate the potential social impacts of various social institutions.
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Part 2: Major theoretical approaches to sociology
Many theorists and researchers have proposed unique perspectives on social interactions. Each of these theories holds their own unique perspectives on human behavior. Be sure to take note of each theory’s most prominent thinker, its foundational concepts, and whether it adopts a microsociological or macrosociological perspective—that is, if the perspective most strongly applies to interactions between individuals or society as a whole.
As you review each of these theories, consider how the following example situation may be viewed and resolved.
On a snowy day, factory laborers orchestrate a protest outside of a garment factory owner’s house calling for higher wages and reduced working hours.
Figure 1 How might different social theorists perceive or interpret this sample situation?
a) Conflict theory
Conflict theory, as put forth by the writings of Karl Marx, is a macro-level social theory, which states that unequal division of power in society drives social behaviors and institutions. Conflict theory claims that social institutions are not neutral entities because they are designed by the powerful. Accordingly, social institutions and society favor the wealthy and powerful. This occurs to the continued detriment of the powerless.
These differences in power materialize as conflicts between different social classes: laborers and employers, and the rich and the poor. Marx, a philosopher and economic theorist, wrote about the exploitation of the proletariat (the common wage worker) by the bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production, including factories and farms). He believed that once the proletariat overthrows the bourgeoisie and seizes the means of production, exploitation would finally end. This event would be the key resolution in society and would provide justice for all social classes.
Common sentiments resulting from conflict theory include sentiments such as “the system is rigged” or “the rich get richer, the poor get poorer.” Both of these phrases highlight the unequal distribution of power in society and the tendency of social structures to reify these inequalities.
In response to the example situation, a proponent of conflict theory may state that: until the rich factory owner stops prioritizing profit, he will continue cutting labor costs. The workers will suffer, and there will always be a conflict between the owners of production and workers.
b) Meritocracy
The meritocratic approach is a macro-level social theory claiming that individuals gain influence and power in society through positive individual qualities, such as talent, diligence, and charisma. Meritocracy suggests that anyone can rise up the social ladder and ascend to a higher social class. As a result, this perspective claims that people possess full autonomy over their social station in life.
Meritocracy implies that there are those who are “deserving” and “undeserving:” by suggesting that people are in control of their social destinies, the theory suggests that people who do not have a high station in society (e.g., people who are unhoused or poor) are in such positions because they lack merit or hard work.
In reality, meritocracy does not consider other structural forces that shape people’s social status or perceived social worth. Many forces that are in an individual’s external locus of control affect social status, including race, ethnicity, and geographic location. Because no society can become truly meritocratic, meritocracy is often discussed in terms of the “myth of meritocracy.” Common sentiments that reflect meritocracy can include statements such as “pull yourself up by your bootstraps” and “you got what was coming to you.”
Note that meritocracy is at odds with conflict theory. At a fundamental level, conflict theory might be considered a pessimistic view of societies, whereas meritocracy is a rose-tinted (overly optimistic) view of society and culture.
In response to the example situation, a proponent of meritocratic society may state that the garment factory owner worked hard to get where he is in life. The laborers should work harder, go back to school, or get a better job if they want to earn more money.
c) Symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism is a social theory applied to one-on-one (micro-level) interactions and how people use specific symbols to communicate specific messages. This theory states that symbols such as words, objects, and gestures gain significance through the social interactions (e.g., habits, rituals, cultural lore, etc.) that are generated. Importantly, these symbols do not gain meaning until individuals in a society agree upon a meaning.
George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley are considered to be the original founders of the theory of symbolic interactionism. (Recall that Mead also proposed the definition of the “I” and “Me” theory—in which he examined how the self is defined relative to a generalized other.)
In response to the example situation, a proponent of symbolic interactionism may interrogate types of protest signs and armbands they brought to the rally, and why these were meaningful to their message.
d) Social constructionism
Social constructionism is a theory that addresses society on a macroscopic level. The theory was first introduced by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckman. Constructionism refers to the phenomenon of “social constructs”—deeply embedded, influential, and abstract concepts, such as money, race, and justice—that possess their meaning as a consequence of society’s active participation in the “meaning-making” of the social construct. Social constructionism also considers how different concepts are understood differently in different historical and geographical contexts.
Symbolic interactionism and social constructionism are highly related, but the theories are distinct. Note that the former deals with individual relationships and exchanges, while the latter addresses views held by society as a whole.
In response to the example situation, a proponent of social constructionism may state that the protest shows how society believes in the concept of justice. The laborers organized because they believe in the power of peaceful demonstration to further justice and societal change.
e) Rational choice-exchange theory
Rational choice-exchange theory is a micro-level social theory advanced by social theorist George Homans. This theory is based upon two claims: 1) individuals behave “rationally” and are able to evaluate their choices based on logical thought and consequences, and 2) as a result, social relationships develop based on an evaluation of exchanges. Each party in a relationship decides that the relationship will result in some favorable exchange of goods, including knowledge, wisdom, companionship, or material items.
In this view, people are inherently self-interested and concerned with the cost-benefit analysis of social interactions. Thus, individuals seek out social interactions because they find gratification and rewards in these interactions.
In reality, humans tend to be irrational actors. This theory fails to take irrational and illogical desires into account—that is, decisions that may be driven by impulse or emotion.
In response to the example situation, a proponent of rational choice-exchange theory may state that the wage laborers weighed the benefits of a protest and the costs of potentially losing their employment and facing the inclement snowy weather. As a collective, the laborers agreed the protest was important—which is why they were present at the protest.
f) Structural functionalism
Functionalism is a macro-level social theory advanced by Emile Durkheim. This theory views different parts of society (such as banks, schools, government, and factories) as structures that fulfill specific and interrelated functions toward a fully functional society. It examines the different functions of varying social structures and how they all contribute to societal stability, interconnectedness, and equilibrium.
Functionalism adopts a holistic view of social structures and likens sociology to other scientific disciplines. A direct comparison between biology and structural functionalism has led some thinkers to use biological metaphors in their explanation of structural functionalism. For example, social structures may be compared to organs and society itself to the entire organism. As societies change across time, these “organs” adapt to maintain order, “homeostasis,” and survival of the greater “organism.”
In response to the example situation, a proponent of functionalism may state that the wage laborer class provides the manpower for our industrial sector. The managerial and industrial sector—to which the factory owner belongs—is responsible for the effective management of large groups of team members. The factory owner is failing to fulfill his role and purpose in society by neglecting the needs of his worker.
Figure 2 Major social theories to understand for the MCAT.
Feminist Theory
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Part 3: Social structures and institutions
Social structures are the stable arrangements in which people interact with each other and fulfill interrelated roles. Social structures include the institutions of government, religion, education, and family. These are the means by which the individuals in a society learn of their roles and how they can contribute—a process known as socialization.
a) Government and economy
A government, as the center of authority in a society, administers laws and programs that govern the actions of individuals. There are multiple forms of governments, and they may differ in their level of involvement within economic systems.
An economy describes the flow of goods, services, and money. Capitalist systems are economic systems that are profit-oriented and privately controlled. Socialist systems are economic systems that are collectively owned and thus produce goods that are equally allocated and directly used rather than intended for profit. Marxism is a socioeconomic theory that asserts the means of production must be controlled by the workers. (Recall that Marx called these workers the proletariat.)
Division of labor is overseen by the government and economic systems. The division of labor results in allocating specific individuals to specialized roles within complex processes. The division of labor allows people to allocate their resources toward fulfilling one specialized task (that benefits the production of goods and services) while receiving the benefits of labor of other people fulfilling other specialized tasks.
For example, the division of labor enables one to wear a T-shirt that has been designed by a pattern-maker, cut by a trimmer, woven by a fabric manufacturer, sewn by a seamstress, marketed by a retailer, and so forth. The specialized roles of many different skilled professionals allow a wider range of individuals to benefit and also decrease the amount of time required for one individual to produce a single product.
b) Religion
Religious institutions include churches, sects, or cults. Churches are widely recognized institutions where religions are practiced. Churches may also be sanctioned by a government or state.
Sects are an offshoot of a “mainstream religion” that often focuses on an alternative or more traditional understanding of a sacred text. Cults are separate from “mainstream religion,” propagate entirely new systems of thought, and are often short-lived. These institutions may be considered a subculture or counterculture. (For more information on forms of group-based behavior, be sure to refer to our guide on social psychology.)
Due to its cultural influence, religious movements can lead to social change as well. Modernization and the popularity of technology have made several religious practices and experiences more widely accessible. This advent of technology has also led to a rise in secularization, or the removal of religious influence from government and social institutionalism.
Secularization is a cultural phenomenon that may be considered in opposition to fundamentalism. Fundamentalist groups advocate for a return to the original roots and literal interpretations in a certain religious practice. Fundamentalism may also advocate for the role of religion in government and social institutions.
c) Education
An educational institution serves to provide individuals with skills that can be applied in a career or other interactions with society. A government or other state entity may standardize the education provided to young children. Standardized education is typically based on the skills that a government considers critical to both individual and state success. This knowledge is known as the visible curriculum and may include content taught in mathematics, science, and language skills.
The term hidden curriculum is used to describe the latent functions of a school. This includes educating students about abstract values and principles deemed to be positive attributes by wider society—in both conscientious and inadvertent ways. The hidden curriculum can be influenced by the surrounding neighborhoods, public and/or private funders, teachers and staff (and their expectations of what should be taught), and fellow peers. For example, the hidden curriculum of educational institutions may include respect for authority, punctuality, patriotism, and a belief in meritocracy.
Teacher expectation is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which the expectations a teacher holds for their students shape a student’s actual performance. For example, a teacher who tells her students that she believes they can all get a perfect score on their MCAT exam (and thus sets a high expectation) is more likely to spend additional time and resources in educating her students. As a result, the teacher sees higher student performances than might have resulted if she had not set such expectations. In contrast, a teacher who tells an immigrant student that she will not do well in her English class sets a low expectation for the student; thus, the student performs poorly.
Structural inequalities and injustices can also affect educational institutions. Educational segregation and stratification arise when structural inequalities result in differential access to quality education or a certain set of academic classes based on characteristics such as gender, neighborhood, race, and income.
d) Family
Families are composed of individuals related through kinship ties. Kinship ties are social ties that generate family relationships, such as through blood, adoption, and marriage.
Individuals are said to be primary kin if they are separated by only one line on a pedigree chart. For example, primary kin may include one’s spouse, parents, siblings, and children. Secondary kin includes family members who are twice removed, such as a grandparent or an aunt—and so on.
Figure 3 Examples of kinship ties
Families can adopt a variety of structures. Nuclear families consist of a father, a mother, and children, with no additional primary kinship ties. Nuclear families exclude multi-generational families. In the 21st century, families are increasingly breaking out of the “nuclear family” model and adopting “blended” families. This is a result of increasing acceptance of queer relationships, divorce and remarriage, and financial strain that may lead to multigenerational households.
Some cultures feature families in which one person has multiple spouses. Polygyny (“poly” = multiple; “gyny” = related to women) refers to the practice of a man marrying multiple wives. Polyandry (“andry”= related to men) refers to the practice of a woman marrying multiple husbands. Polygamy refers to the general practice of possessing multiple simultaneous partners. This is in contrast to monogamy, or the practice of possessing one spouse or romantic partner.
e) Health and medicine
The ways in which healthcare is administered to a community also have deep impacts on society and culture. The medicalization of behavior refers to a tendency to form diagnoses and define new illnesses around behaviors previously considered to be normal. Over time, additional behaviors are newly defined as “abnormal” and eventually become overdiagnosed and overtreated.
The sick role refers to outward changes in behavior that come with the assumption of a new identity as a patient. This may include reducing professional responsibilities at work and asking for help from friends and family. There may be social consequences that arise from the sick role, such as losing a job or alienating a support system.
In contrast, the illness experience refers to internal emotions and cognitions that may arise from this new identity. The illness experience may include a reckoning with one’s own mortality or feelings of despair due to negative consequences of the sick role.
The delivery of healthcare includes the organization and accessibility of healthcare professionals to patients. To improve the delivery and quality of healthcare, social epidemiology can provide insights into how a patient’s healthcare experience is affected by factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, and so forth.
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Part 4: Culture
The culture of a group of people is composed of elements such as beliefs, language, rituals, symbols, and values. Culture is passed on through agents of socialization: people, institutions, and traditions that teach individuals in society about cultural values. Cultural norms and practices are also greatly shaped by mass media, which includes television, radio, and online platforms.
Material culture refers to tangible objects that make up a culture, including objects used in rituals, clothing, and food. Symbolic culture refers to intangible principles, values, social norms, and customs shared by a group of people.
Transmission of culture occurs as individuals pass on cultural practices onto younger members of the same cultural community. The diffusion of culture occurs as cultural practices spread to members of other cultural communities and gradually become adopted. These changes in culture influence the ways that humans live in a process referred to as sociocultural evolution.
Culture lag occurs after a new technological innovation or new idea is brought into a culture. As the innovation is initially new and unproven, individuals are initially unwilling to adopt it—no matter how good of an idea it is. The culture lag eventually ends when the new innovation is accepted as part of the culture.
Culture shock occurs when an individual encounters a new culture for the first time. The new culture may have many unfamiliar customs and traditions. This culture shock eventually fades over time and may lead to the individual adopting both the material and symbolic culture of the culture. This is a process known as assimilation.
Multiculturalism can occur when multiple cultures exist in the same spatial area. These cultures may also include subcultures and countercultures. A subculture is a type of culture that is not as popular as a mainstream culture but does not serve to contradict or oppose the mainstream culture. Counterculture refers to culture that subverts the mainstream culture.
Ethnocentrism occurs as one individual values their particular culture as superior to others and does not engage with other cultures in a positive manner. This is in opposition to cultural relativism, which is a perspective that states that all cultures should be viewed in light of their own merits without stereotype or prejudice.
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Part 5: High-yield terms
Capitalist systems: economic systems that are profit-oriented and privately controlled
Church: a religious institution that is generally government or state-sanctioned organizations and is widely recognized
Conflict theory: states that the unequal division of power in society drives social behaviors and institutions
Cult: a religious institution that is wholly separate from mainstream religion
Exchange-rational choice theory: macro-sociological theory led by George Homans that assumes people behave perfectly rationally
Educational segregation and stratification: the differential access to quality education or a certain set of academic classes based on characteristics like gender, neighborhood, race, and income
Functionalism: views the different parts of society as organs that fulfill specific functions toward the maintenance of a composite society
Hidden curriculum: the social education that takes place in schools on abstract values and principles that are deemed to be positive attributes by wider society; taught in both conscious and inadvertent ways, such as respect for authority and punctuality
Kinship ties: social ties that generate family relationships through blood, adoption, and marriage
Marxism: a socioeconomic system that argues that the means of production must be controlled by the workers (which he called the proletariat)
Division of labor: allocation and training of specific people to specialized roles within complicated processes
Meritocracy: states that individuals can gain influence and power in society through the virtue of their positive individual qualities, such as talent, diligence, and charisma
Nuclear families: family structures that consist of two parents and children
Polygyny: the practice of a man marrying multiple wives
Polyandry: the practice of a woman marrying multiple husbands
Polygamy: the practice of possessing multiple simultaneous partners
Primary kin: family members who are separated by only one line by blood, adoption, or marriage on a pedigree chart
Secondary kin: family members who are twice separated by blood, adoption, or marriage on a pedigree chart
Socialist systems: economic systems that are collectively owned and thus produce goods that are equally allocated and directly used, rather than intended for profit
Symbolic interactionism: states that symbols gain significance through the social interactions that are generated around that symbol to communicate specific messages
Social constructionism: describes the phenomenon of “social constructs”—deeply embedded, influential, and abstract concepts—that possess meaning as a virtue of existing within a society that actively participates in the “meaning-making” of the social construct
Teacher expectation: a type of self-fulfilling prophecy in which the expectations a teacher holds for a student influences the student’s actual performance
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Part 6: Passage-based questions and answers
A review of literature indicates that there is a paucity of research on the experiences of parents of children with cleft palate (CL/P), stigma communication, and cultural beliefs associated with CL/P among Kenyan communities. Existing research states that orofacial clefts are given a wide variety of meanings and consequences in different cultures. In regards to etiology, some groups view clefts to be due to divine will, evil spirits, handling sharp objects during an eclipse, or even a husband fishing during the pregnancy.
A research team sought to fill this gap by conducting in-depth interviews with 24 purposefully sampled respondents recruited during a CL/P medical event at AIC CURE International Hospital in Kijabe, Kenya. The research team designed their interview questions by using Goffman’s theoretical framework on stigma, which states that individuals are categorized by the society on the basis of the anticipated normative values—separating the “normal” from the “deviants.” The gist of this approach is the understanding that stigma arises during social interaction.
Goffman’s theory holds as its cardinal assumption that in a society, people jointly construct their understanding of phenomena in their world, and meanings are developed during social interaction.
To capture some aspects of stigma communication and cultural beliefs associated with CL/P, the following interview questions guided the discussions: (i) How do other people react when they see your child? (ii) What stories exist in your communities about the cause of CL/P? Or what do people attribute as the cause of CL/P? (iii) How has the condition of your child affected your social life? (Probe: For example, do you go out for social functions? Explain please. (Probe for self-exclusion from social occasions, interaction with friends, etc.)
In addition to taking short notes during the interview, the interviewer also noted any relevant expressions that could not be captured on the audiotape (e.g., tone of voice, facial expression, and body language). In almost all the cases with the respondents interviewed, getting a child with CL/P elicited diverse emotional reactions from the parents. These emotional reactions included shock or surprise, stress, fear, self-blame, acceptance or rejection of the baby, shame, and even suicidal and homicidal thoughts.
Question 1: Which of the following theoretical approaches to sociology best matches the passage’s description of Goffman’s theoretical framework on stigma?
A) Conflict theory
B) Exchange-choice rational theory
C) Social constructionism
D) Functionalism
Question 2: Interviewee 1 stated that her sister made stigmatizing remarks about Interviewee 1’s child who has a cleft palate. What is the kinship bond between Interviewee 1’s child and Interviewee 1’s sister?
A) Cardinal kin
B) Primary kin
C) Secondary kin
D) Tertiary kin
Question 3: Suppose that cleft palate surgery is classified as a cosmetic procedure, thus not covered under medical insurance. Which of the following best describes how a conflict theorist would most likely respond to this situation?
A) Surgeons seek only to profit, so lower-class children with cleft palates who cannot afford surgery go untreated.
B) The cleft palate is a visual symbol of a husband fishing while the wife is pregnant.
C) The function of the medical insurance system is to treat non-cosmetic surgeries.
D) Aesthetics are a social construct, so cleft palate surgeries should be covered under medical insurance.
Question 4: Which of the following thinkers in sociology is least relevant to the theoretical framework utilized by the research team in this passage?
A) Émile Durkheim
B) Peter L. Berger
C) Thomas Luckman
D) George Herbert Mead
Question 5: Which of the following could not be a social structure that offers support to parents who suffer from cleft palate stigma?
A) Family
B) Solitary meditation
C) Church
D) Child’s school
Answer key for passage-based questions
1. Answer choice C is correct. Paragraphs 2 and 3 of the passage focus on Goffman's theory of stigma. Notably, the passage’s explanation of Goffman’s theory states that stigma “arises during a social interaction” and that Goffman’s cardinal assumption was that “in a society, people jointly construct their understanding of phenomena in their world and meanings are developed during social interaction.” This explanation most matches the perspective taken by social constructionism (choice C is correct; choices A, B, and C are incorrect).
2. Answer choice C is correct. To the child, the aunt is secondary kin. The aunt is twice removed on a pedigree chart. The child to the child’s parent is one step. The child’s parent to the child’s parent’s sibling is another step (choice C is correct; choices A, B, and D are incorrect).
3. Answer choice A is correct. Conflict theorists are concerned with power differentials that manifest in society. The power differential and consequent conflict between the surgeon and low-income families is emphasized in this answer choice (choice A is correct; choices B, C, and D are incorrect).
4. Answer choice A is correct. Émile Durkheim is a key thinker of functionalism, a sociological theory that focuses on how different aspects of society fulfill specific functions to achieve an overall functioning whole, which is not related to the passage’s discussion (choice A is correct). The passage speaks about social interactions that lead to meaning-making about the stigma of cleft palates. Berger and Luckman are key thinkers behind social constructionism, and Mead is the key thinker behind symbolic interactionist theory Both theories match the passage’s discussion of stigma, so these are the incorrect answers (Choice B, C, and D are incorrect).
5. Answer choice B is correct. Solitary meditation does not feature interpersonal interactions, and therefore would not be a part of a social structure (choices A, B, and D are incorrect).
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Part 7: Standalone questions and answers
Question 1: Anna lives in a neighborhood where the local school does not offer foreign language classes, fine arts classes, and sports teams due to a lack of funds. Anna is unable to attend the school in a neighboring town that has more resources. Which of the following sociological concepts best describes Anna’s situation?
A) Situational poverty
B) Educational segregation
C) Achievement gap
D) Self-fulfilling prophecy
Question 2: Which of the following theories adopts a primarily micro-sociological perspective on society?
A) Social constructionism
B) Symbolic interactionism
C) Conflict theory
D) Feminism
Question 3: Which of the answer choices best matches a phrase about social conditions to the sociological theory that espouses that belief?
A) Humans are inherently self-interested: exchange-rational choice theory
B) Humans are inherently generous: functionalism
C) Humans are inherently social: conflict theory
D) Humans are inherently reticent: symbolic interactionism
Question 4: David, a social theorist, wrote a paper where he examined the manifest and latent functions of facial recognition systems. Which of the following social theories best matches the topic of David’s paper?
A) Structural functionalism
B) Conflict theory
C) Exchange-rational choice theory
D) Symbolic interactionism
Question 5: Suppose that a local business hosts a canned food drive. Which of the following answer choices describes a manifest function of the canned food drive?
A) To generate increased social media traffic onto the business website
B) To improve the reputation of the business in the neighborhood
C) To collect cans to feed the hungry
D) To generate discussion about the merits of capitalism
Answer key for standalone questions
1. Answer choice B is correct. Anna’s situation describes someone who has differing access to educational opportunities as a result of structural inequities (in this case, due to class and geographical location)—which is educational segregation (choice B is correct; choices A, C, and D are incorrect).
2. Answer choice B is correct. Symbolic interactionism often focuses on one-on-one communication and its use and interpretation of symbols. The other theories are macro-level views of society (choice B is correct; choices A, C, and D are incorrect).
3. Answer choice A is correct. A major assumption made by exchange-rational choice theory is that humans are inherently self-interested (“rational”) and that they will engage in cost-benefit analysis before engaging in social interactions and relationships (choice A is correct; choices B, C, and D are incorrect).
4. Answer choice A is correct. Structural functionalism examines how different parts of society fulfill different functions to maintain the overall order and balance of society. A discussion of the manifest (intended and advertised) and latent (unintended) functions of facial recognition systems would lie under structural functionalism (choice A is correct; choices B, C, and D are incorrect).
5. Answer choice C is correct. A manifest function is a function that is advertised and intended. For example, the manifest function of a car is to provide transportation. Accordingly, the manifest function of a canned food drive would be its advertised or most clearly intended purpose: to collect food to feed the hungry (choice C is correct). The other answer choices describe potential latent functions (choices A, B, and D are incorrect).
