MD-PhD Programs: The Ultimate Guide (2024)

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Everything you need to know about MD-PhD programs and how to get in, including example MD-PhD essays and complete lists of MD-PhD and MSTP programs by state

Woman in lab coat smiling and standing next to a microscope

Learn what it takes to get into top md-phd programs

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Part 1: Introduction

If your career goals include both practicing medicine and diving deep into scientific research, you may have your eye on MD-PhD programs. You might also wonder if applying to MD-PhD programs differs from the traditional medical school admissions process.

The two processes are distinct in several ways. Yet, while the majority of medical schools offer these dual-degree programs, the differences between MD and MD-PhD admissions are neither widely discussed nor well understood—largely because far fewer students apply to become “physician scientists.” In the 2023–2024 admissions cycle, there were 52,577 MD applicants vs. just 1,795 MD-PhD applicants—nearly 30 times fewer.

Because the number of MD-PhD applicants is comparatively small, there’s also less information available to help prospective applicants navigate the MD-PhD admissions process. That’s why we created this guide, which will answer the many questions that we commonly receive about MD-PhD applications.

We’ll provide information to help you decide whether these programs are right for you, strategies you can use should you choose to apply, discussions of the required MD-PhD essays (including examples), and complete lists of MD-PhD and MSTP programs so you can maximize your odds of getting in.

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Part 2: An overview of MD-PhD programs

What are MD-PhD programs?

MD-PhD programs are joint (i.e., dual-degree) programs that allow you to receive medical training and develop expertise in a research area. Most MD-PhD students complete dissertation research in biomedical sciences like biochemistry, genetics, and neuroscience, to name just a few examples. However, some may specialize in other fields, including anthropology, public health, bioengineering, and bioethics. Different schools will offer different options for the fields you might focus on for the PhD portion of the degree.

What are Medical Scientist Training Programs (MSTP)?

MSTP programs are a subset of 50 MD-PhD programs that are funded by the National Institute of Health (NIH). While MSTP admissions are very competitive, these programs come with significant benefits including full tuition coverage, a living expenses stipend, and professional development opportunities such as seminars, conferences, and mentorship. The MSTP initiative is meant to encourage the development of physician scientists to advance the medical field through research. The NIH began awarding the MSTP designation in 1964, with Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Northwestern University, and New York University being the original three MSTP programs. A number these programs also allow students to complete the PhD portion of the program at an allied institution outside of the home university. For example, the MSTP program at the University of California, San Francisco allows students to complete their PhD work at University of California, Berkeley.

It should be noted that many non-MSTP programs will also provide some of the aforementioned benefits, such as tuition remission and living stipends. Each program’s resources and offerings will differ, so we recommend looking into each of them individually.

How many MD-PhD programs are there?

As of March 2024, there are 122 MD-PhD programs in the United States and 13 in Canada. You can find the full list of current programs at the end of this guide, as well as on the AAMC website.

How long are MD-PhD programs?

MD-PhD programs are designed to be completed in 7 to 8 years. A minority of students complete the program in 6 or 10 years.

Here’s what the typical MD-PhD curriculum looks like:

  • Years 1–2 will be spent mostly on completing medical school coursework.

  • Years 3–6 will consist mostly of PhD research.

  • Years 7–8 will be spent mostly completing clinical rotations.

Following the completion of your MD-PhD program, the majority of MD-PhD grads go on to match into medical residencies and fellowships—this means another 3–7 years of training, depending on what field you enter. As you can see, earning an MD-PhD is a substantial time commitment.

What are the benefits of having MD-PhD attached to your name?  

Physician scientists are uniquely equipped to investigate diseases because of their extensive scientific and medical training. This type of work has the potential to impact the lives of millions of patients. While MD physicians can also pursue meaningful research, they typically don’t receive specialized training unless they seek it out.

MD-PhD graduates, on the other hand, develop the necessary research skills during their graduate studies to eventually pursue independent research projects, run their own labs, and so on. Moreover, in some circles, MD-PhD graduates enjoy additional prestige because they’re seen as research experts simply by virtue of going through such a rigorous program.

What kind of residencies do MD-PhDs enter?

MD-PhD graduates have traditionally entered medical residencies in internal medicine, pediatrics, or pathology. While those are still the most common choices, the range of specialties chosen by MD-PhDs has widened. Other relatively popular specialties include psychiatry, general surgery, anesthesiology, neurological surgery, and neurology.

There are also a growing number of “research residency programs.” Specifically designed with physician scientists in mind, these programs integrate research alongside clinical training. This often shortens specialty training by a year.

No matter what residency you match into, MD-PhD grads are generally considered desirable candidates for programs at top academic institutions due to their additional training.

What is the average MD-PhD salary and career?

The average physician scientist salary is currently $207,635. However, your salary will depend largely on whether you work in the public or private sector, and what medical specialty you choose.

One thing to keep in mind is that, although some programs are fully funded, MD-PhD programs take 3–4 years longer to complete than an MD program. Therefore, MD-PhD graduates will not begin earning a salary until several years after their MD counterparts.

Your typical career path as an MD-PhD graduate will be to become a faculty member in an academic medical center, such as a medical school or teaching hospital, where most of your time will be spent on research activities; other duties usually include teaching, administrative work, and clinical service. A large portion of your compensation will come in the form of research grants. Around 75% of MD-PhD grads follow this path.

Another sizable portion of physician scientists—around 16%—work as physicians in private practice.

These two career paths account for the vast majority of MD-PhD grads. Still, there are those who earn a comfortable living in the private sector working for pharmaceutical or biotech companies. Others work in governmental or nonprofit research organizations like the NIH and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

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Part 3: How to apply to MD-PhD programs

How competitive are MD-PhD programs? Is it harder to get into an MD-PhD program than an MD program?

The competitiveness of MD-PhD programs vs. MD programs depends on how you look at it.

Overall, it’s fair to state that MD-PhD admissions are more difficult than MD admissions. However, because MD-PhD programs so heavily emphasize your research track record, you may be more or less competitive for them depending on your stats and extracurricular profile.

(Suggested reading: Average GPA and MCAT Score for Every Medical School)

Do MD-PhD programs require that I take the GRE in addition to the MCAT?

It depends on the specific medical school and PhD discipline you’re applying to conduct research in. Non-medical disciplines (e.g., sociology) are far more likely to ask for your GRE score in addition to your MCAT score. You should review application requirements as early as possible to ensure that you have adequate time to prepare for the GRE if it’s required for your particular program.

How should I prepare differently to apply for MD-PhD programs?

The key differentiator between MD-PhD and MD programs is their research emphasis. If you’re considering applying to MD-PhD programs, make sure you will be able to demonstrate a longstanding commitment to research, preferably in one to three different labs. Moreover, aim to become an author on multiple publications to boost your admissions odds. Finally, make sure to develop strong rapport with your labs’ PIs so that you can secure strong recommendation letters when the time comes to apply.

With regard to coursework, the same courses that satisfy MD program requirements will satisfy MD-PhD programs’ requirements. In other words, you won’t need to take additional prerequisites to qualify for MD-PhD programs.

How many MD-PhD programs should I apply to?

It depends on several factors, including:

  • Your stats and extracurricular background: The higher your stats and the stronger your extracurricular—especially research—background, the greater your overall odds.

  • The competitiveness of your school list: The more selective the school, the lower your admissions odds there.

  • The number of concurrent MD applications: The more schools you apply to overall, the greater your total admissions odds.

Overall, we recommend that you apply to 20–35 schools across MD and MD-PhD programs.

Can I apply to MD and MD-PhD programs at the same time?

Yes. Simply indicate on your AMCAS application application which schools you’d like to apply for as an MD candidate vs. an MD-PhD candidate. For most schools, if they reject you for their MD-PhD program they will still consider you for their regular MD program. This point, however, is important to confirm with each individual school.

What is the MD-PhD application timeline like?

It mimics the MD application timeline. Ideally, you’ll want to submit your primary application as soon as possible after AMCAS opens for submissions in late May/early June. You should then aim to pre-write your secondary essays so you can submit your supplemental applications within two weeks of receiving them, usually sometime in July. MD-PhD interviews typically take place between October and March, with most interview invitations sent out during that same period.

Do I face a disadvantage if I apply MD/PhD, get rejected, and essentially lose out on the early rolling admissions benefit?

In our experience, we have observed no such disadvantage. We have students who get into some MD/PhD programs, while others get deferred but are ultimately accepted into MD programs. Therefore, we encourage you to apply MD/PhD wherever you hope to attend such programs.

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Part 4: How to write MD-PhD essays (examples included)

How does the MD-PhD application differ from the MD application?

You’ll have to submit two additional essays through AMCAS—on top of your personal statement and Work and Activities section—for MD-PhD consideration:

  • The MD-PhD essay, which asks for your reasons for pursuing the dual-degree program

  • The “significant research experience” essay, which asks for details about the scientific research you have conducted

Below, we’ll go over how to approach each MD-PhD essay, show you full-length examples, and discuss what makes them successful.

MD-PhD essay

In this essay, you’ll explain why you want to enter a dual-degree program. Your essay should thus focus on why you need to complete both an MD and a PhD, and why you wouldn’t be fulfilled by a career that didn’t include both research and clinical work. This essay will be forwarded only to your designated MD-PhD programs and it is limited to 3,000 characters (including spaces).

To explain their reasons for applying, applicants sometimes write about how they love both research and medicine, and simply couldn’t decide which to focus on. A weakness of this approach is that these essays often end up describing research and medicine in isolation from each other, which highlights that the applicant hasn’t really thought through how they interact. This might inadvertently suggest to adcoms that you actually would be better off in a standalone MD or PhD program.

Instead of this, we suggest discussing how you can’t envision not having both in your life. In other words, focus on why the combination of research and medicine is important to you. How have you and how will you apply research to your clinical work and vice-versa? What does their integration offer you that a standalone program won’t? By showing how the two areas cross over and impact each other, you’ll be able to make the case that an MD-PhD program is right for you.

Here’s an example that discusses this successfully:

My clinical work and research during college seemed separate. As a longtime psychiatric emergency department (ED) volunteer, I worked firsthand with patients and families in medical and psychological crises. As a researcher, I initially organized patient files before creating and managing a new patient database for a project identifying risk factors for stroke and cerebrovascular disease in underserved Latino populations. It wasn’t until my postgraduate years that I began to integrate my passion for mental health treatment with research.

After graduating from college, I accepted a research associate position in the Columbia University Department of Psychiatry, where I worked in Dr. Joan Stephenson’s autism assessment lab. I trained to reliably evaluate individuals suspected of having autism spectrum disorder (ASD) using behavioral observation and clinical interview methods to determine their eligibility for study participation. While my experiences in the Stephenson Lab were markedly different from working in the psychiatric ED, I realized that the importance of empathic care transcends the acuity of a patient’s condition. For instance, I distinctly remember a mother who feared that her 2-year-old son would receive an ASD diagnosis like his older brother, despite her and her husband praying for years that they would have one child with typical development before they were unable to have other children. When the lead psychologist confirmed their younger son’s ASD diagnosis, the mother broke down in tears. Before providing information on the boy’s prognosis and ASD treatment options, the psychologist and I spent the next 15 to 20 minutes validating the mother’s concerns. At that point, we figured the mother needed someone to tell her that her feelings were normal and that she wanted the best for her children. Doing so helped the mother be more receptive to our treatment recommendations.

My fascinations with mental health and cognitive psychology stem from believing that differences among human beings are not limited to the physical or social or mental aspects of development, but encompass their interaction. Reflecting on the challenges of living with Tourette Syndrome and coming from an immigrant family, I realize that the distinct combination of life events we experience, referred to simply as “environment,” is what truly makes each of us unique.

My life and research experiences have collectively taught me how conditions aren’t merely something you study in a lab out of curiosity, but rather how they dramatically impact patient life and outlook. Moreover, these experiences helped me realize my desire to become a physician scientist and pursue translational research that directly improves peoples’ lives on a larger scale.

Why does this essay work?

  • This applicant does an excellent job of explaining how he came to realize that his passions for clinical work and psychiatric research, once separate, actually complement and benefit each other. For example, he discusses an experience in which empathy, which is typically thought of a trait of physicians rather than researchers, came into play while working as a research assistant.

  • He also writes about how research doesn’t exist in isolation in a lab or purely for the pursuit of knowledge but, rather, has a real-life impact on people’s lives. By incorporating specific examples, including his own experiences of living with Tourette Syndrome, he convincingly makes the case that he has a firsthand understanding of the practical importance of research.

  • The essay ends with the applicant’s goals for his career. In your own essay, you might go one step further than this applicant did by providing greater specificity—for instance, if you have a particular research interest you hope to pursue, mention it. That said, it’s not necessary to know yet exactly what problem or topic you hope to research so long as you can mention a broad field of interest, as this applicant did. 

Significant research experience essay

Your significant research experience essay is where you’ll provide details about your notable research experiences. This should include:

  • The durations of your research experiences

  • Your research supervisors’ names and affiliations

  • The nature of the problems you studied

  • Your contributions to the research efforts

In writing about their research projects, applicants are sometimes unsure of how technical or detailed their descriptions should be. You don’t want to include so much jargon that your essay reads like a scientific manuscript submission, but it’s okay to include technical details so long as they’re at a level that any scientist will be able to understand.

While describing your experience is your main goal in this essay, you might also take on the secondary goal of communicating what kind of student and researcher you are and hope to develop into. Remember that adcoms are looking for candidates who will be able to handle the strenuous challenges of an MD-PhD program. So, this essay can be a space to convey personal qualities like resolve, problem-solving, initiative, leadership, and the ability to absorb lessons and grow. You’re given 10,000 characters (including spaces) to work with in this essay.

Here are a few ways that you might incorporate personal qualities into your significant research essay:

  • Write about what you learned from specific research experiences and how you’ll apply those lessons going forward.

  • Describe not only your successes, but also your failures and what they taught you.

  • If you played a leadership role in some of your research experiences, make sure to highlight that you weren’t simply taking directions from someone else.

Let’s take a look at an example:

I have had X significant research experiences:

1. Professor Sean Guo, MD/PhD, Columbia University Department of Psychiatry, March 2016 - August 2018

The Guo Lab investigates the development of child psychiatric conditions through imaging genetics. My project focuses on conducting cross-modal imaging genetics analyses between genes in the catecholamine system, including ADRA2A, 5-HTTLPR, DAT1, and DRD4, and functional and connectivity imaging data to unravel the genetic bases of neural networks underlying response inhibition (RI) in children. Alongside Dr. Guo, I found that youth with greater levels of impulsivity and inattentiveness, based on standardized behavioral rating scales, displayed greater latency on a computerized RI task.  Moreover, impulsive and inattentive traits, as well as performance on the RI task, was negatively associated with functional anisotropy (FA) and functional coupling between the presupplementary motor area (preSMA), interior frontal cortex (IFC),and subthalamic nucleus. Atypical connectivity and functional coupling among these brain areas were observed to be fixed and nonprogressive regardless of age. Furthermore, we found a positive association between the blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal (BOLD) and FA in the preSMA, right IFC, STN, and occipital lobe.

Identifying genetic effects on neural function and connectivity related to RI have helped us begin elucidating neural pathways of inhibitory control. This project is translational by virtue of its integration of previously unexplored genotypes and behavioral data with functional and white matter connectivity. Our next step is to apply these early causal models of RI to develop targeted interventions. This is particularly relevant given that RI deficits are associated with numerous conditions of clinical, public health, and economic significance, including substance disorders, addiction, and obesity. 

I co-authored these findings in two manuscripts published in [Journal] and [Journal]. I also co-designed and presented a poster at the [Year, Conference]. Moreover, my colleagues and I plan to submit a paper to [Journal] in the coming weeks. If accepted, this would be my third first-authored publication.

Through this project, I learned a number of neuroimaging research techniques, including recruiting, consenting, and imaging study participants, processing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data, conducting statistical analyses, and writing manuscripts for peer-reviewed journals. It was extremely gratifying not only to learn these new skills, but also to take greater ownership over a project than I have in the past. This experience helped me to better understand what goes into a study from start to finish and has prepared me for future leadership.

(Note: The applicant goes on to include additional significant research experience entries using the format above.)

Let’s analyze what’s working in this essay:

  • The applicant provides all the relevant details about a specific research experience. Note that it’s not always necessary to go into this level of detail—given that you can use up to 10,000 characters, how much detail to include will often depend on how many significant research experiences you want to convey. This excerpt uses about 2,800 characters, meaning that the applicant has room to add 2–3 more experiences at this level of detail.

  • He uses an entry format, which is a great strategy to provide clarity and structure to your essay. If you wish, you can also discuss your experiences in narrative form.

  • He concludes the entry by talking about what he learned both in terms of specific skills but also in terms of lessons that he will apply to future work. This helps adcoms get a glimpse of the human behind the accomplishments.

Final thoughts

For the aspiring physician scientist, MD-PhD programs will provide the training you need to integrate research and clinical work. The MD-PhD admissions process is challenging and differs from that of traditional medical school admissions. In addition to completing medical school prerequisites and earning excellent grades and MCAT scores, you’ll want to ensure that your research experience is robust going into application season. Then, plan to devote significant time to your required application materials, including the two MD-PhD supplementary essays, in order to give yourself the best chances of acceptance.

Dr. Shirag Shemmassian headshot

About the Author

Dr. Shirag Shemmassian is the Founder of Shemmassian Academic Consulting and one of the world's foremost experts on medical school admissions. For nearly 20 years, he and his team have helped thousands of students get into medical school using his exclusive approach.

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Appendix A: Complete list of Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP) institutions

Note: This list contains MD-PhD programs funded by the NIH for award period 7/1/2021 - 6/30/2022​​​​.

Alabama

Arizona

California

Colorado

Connecticut

Florida

Georgia

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Missouri

New York

North Carolina

Ohio

Oregon

Pennsylvania

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

Virginia

Washington

Wisconsin

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Appendix B: Complete list of MD-PhD programs

Note: This is an exhaustive list of MD-PhD programs.

Alabama

(Suggested reading: Medical Schools in Canada: How to Get In)